Generally obtain plant nutrition through their roots (water and minerals) and leaves (absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2)) to create ATP ((adenosine triphosphate or energy) to their metabolic needs) and starch (a reserve for when photosynthetic conditions are not optimal (eg, reducing the intensity and duration of sunlight, drought, frost and other adverse situations). However, carnivorous / "insects" plants need to ingest additional food sources.Accordingly, they "attract, capture, kill to digest and absorb [the enzymes of life] prey [1], which consists mainly of invertebrates.
Currently there are 600 + known species of carnivorous plants that use at least nine plant families that a variety of methods to attract and trap prey - sweet fragrances, chemical secretions, colorful flowers and / or balls, slippery or sticky surfaces and / or mechanical traps. Although they usually grow in temperate areas, whereWater and seasonal sunshine is abundant and the soil is [angry] and poor in nutrients (especially nitrates, calcium, phosphate and iron, for protein synthesis, cell wall reinforcement are nucleic acid synthesis, and chrolophyll synthesis) such as acidic bogs, [ Moore] and rocks, "[2] They are available in many areas. They live on land and in water (such as the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) lives in acidic compounds consisting of highConcentrations of ammonia (a toxic substance) with a pH value between 4 and 5, while the water hose (Utricularia species) lives in water). Some grow in damp marshy compounds (eg, pitcher plants - Darlingtonia and Sarracenia), some in non-temperate environments, where the winters get cold and snow (eg, the common pitcher plant - Sarracenia purpurea) will grow to put others will fall on the soil (Genlisea) or thrive in desert-like conditions and calcium-rich limestoneDeposits (eg the Portuguese dewy pine - (Drosophyllum lusitanicum) and fat herb - (Pinguicula valisneriifolia), while some tropical pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes vines grow up to one hundred meters long, with traps that can capture "creatures as large as frogs [ and even] a few birds and rodents. "[3]
Traps:
Carnivorous plants can be divided into two major groups of the type of case they will use - passive oractive.
Passive Traps:
There are three types of passive traps - "Pitfall", "lobster pot" and "flypaper" or "glue" - which does not have an active agent, such as movement or the movement to catch prey. Instead, they usually leave to "forage" insects (eg ants, beetles, butterflies, flies, moths, wasps, and) to enter and ensnare. Carnivorous plants use passive traps, the cobra lily(Darlingonia), pitcher (Sarracenia), sun pitcher (Heliamphora) and tropical pitcher plant (Nepenthes) plants, and the Portuguese dewy pine (Drosophyllum) and Australian rainbow plant (Byblis).
§ pitfalls:
The first type of passive trap is the "pitfall" trap, the classic representation of the group. These traps usually use "elongated tendrils bearing" Jug "traps at their tips," in which each "" jug "or"Rolled Sheet" [from] a thickened rim and a lid on top. "[4] When prey enters it through ensnared" downward-looking hair and slippery that it push walls and a pool of digestive enzymes and / or bacteria [5] that accelerate degradation and amino acid absorption.
The sun pitcher (Heliamphora), the simplest "pitfall" trap, which flared only from a rolled sheet with sealed edges and a tiny operculum (leafletcovers the case of the opening) and gap (which allows for water overflow) because of the high rainfall in their natural habitat. Because of its simplicity, is based the sun pitcher (Heliamphora) exclusively on symbiotic bacteria to digest its prey and nutrients.
The cobra lily (Darlingonia), pitcher (Sarracenia) and epiphytic (orchid-like plants that grow on other plants for mechanical support only) tropical pitcher plant (Nepenthes) plants use complex "pitfall" trapsto capture and kill prey.
Pitcher plants (Sarracenia) use cases like "open hopper" consisting of "are colorful areas around the opening, [the] like flowers structured and highly smeared with rich nectar to lure ... bees, wasps, beetles, ants, moths and to give. Inward-looking hair then directly prey deeper into the tube until they encounter "a waxy smooth surface" sliding into a pit, consisting of water and enzymes, where they drown and aredigest [6].
Two Sarracenia species (flava flava and Burgundy, the latter, which takes its name from the presence of anthocyanins, a pigment giving its pitchers a reddish color) also use coniine, a poisonous alkaloid found in the hemlock, the effectiveness of their traps improved by poisoning of their prey.
While the common pitcher plant (Sarracenia purpurea), is a low growing Carnivous sample (6 to 12 centimeters at most) to begin to open jars funnel "rain waterdrown their victims "[7] higher-growing pitcher plants like the yellow pitcher (Sarracenia flava), white trumpet (Sarracenia leucophylla), hooded pitcher (Sarracenia minor), and sweet pitcher (Sarracenia rubra), anywhere can grow 8 to 48 inches in height depending on "rain hoods or caps (flared leaflet floor coverings) to protect their traps from overfilling with water and falling over.
The cobra lily (Darlingonia) uses a "balloon-like"Chamber with areoles (small, colorless chlorophyll-free [space], can penetrate through the light ") to be confused incite prey on the run. Insects attracted by "fish-tail like" operculum excesses enter a chamber through an opening below the balloon. Once inside, they tire themselves trying to escape exits from the wrong (areoles), they fall to finally digested into the tube "[8] at the bottom of the pot, where they are.
Finally, since thefinal type of pitcher plant - uses Nepenthes their leaf stalks, instead of their leaves (which have a significantly lower concentration of chloroplasts) for photosynthesis, elevating the importance of the captured prey, they use "cans" goes in "size of egg cups with beer glass "to store water and trap insects plagued (mainly ants, beetles, centipedes, and), spiders, small animal life (such as frogs and other amphibians, small) and even an occasional small bird or rat"The easily lose their footing on the smooth surface of the pitcher's lip, slipping and drowning in the [digestive enzyme] within the flower" [9] to receive "nutrients that are rare in the rainforest." [10]
Interestingly, though, when it comes to Nepenthes, drowning, not all insects that fall into their mugs, or serve as food. Some species of insects and their larvae have "developed a resistance to the stomach [Nepenthes'] enzymes and evenTo choose to live there, in competition with the host plant for food to eat ... Drowning victims. "[11]
A Nepenthes species, the "fanged pitcher plant (Nepenthes bicalcarta) allows not only ants and leave to harvest dead prey to a overbuildup in organic matter, the pitcher could cause rot, prevent, but also deploys" two sharp thorns [nectar glands] bottom of the [pitcher] cover "[12] to inhibit the escape of prey.
Another typeIn which a "pitfall" trap is the bromeliad (Brocchinia reducta), a relative of the pineapple. It uses an urn that benefit broken then nitrifying symbiotic bacteria in which both organisms ", made of tightly packed, waxy leaf bases of the strap leaf insects such as [13] to collect water and catch and kill prey nutrients.
§ Lobster Pot Traps:
The second type of passive case, the "Lobster Pot"Trap, which uses "a" Y-shaped "modified leaf," which allows for easy entrance and no escape. Once prey arrives, inward-looking hair and similar to an internal water flow through a vacuum as water hoses (Utrichularae) violence in "twisted tubular channels, the roles are" the two upper arms of the 'Y', until it extends in the direction created the "belly" and digestive glands at the "lower arm of" Y ", where itdigested [14].
Lobster Pot traps are corkscrew (Genlisea) and parrot pitcher plants (Sarracenia psittacina), both found specializes in the acquisition and digestion of aquatic protozoa. In the case of the corkscrew (Genlisea) are excreted in protozoa of the plant chemicals and attracted yellow or purple flowers. After swimming in a "trap sheet" that hangs down in wet soil and / or water through small slits, escape is blocked by inward-looking hair.Thereafter, glands, hairs to distinguish between these enzymes digest the prey.
§ Flypaper or Adhesive Traps:
While this latter type of passive case, the "flypaper" or "adhesive" trap, covered in plant leaves with are "sticky, gland tip hair (digest the same case can and take several sets of small flies), or a sticky sticky (fluid-like) glue-like layer of slime "(adhesive gelatinous plant substance) thatstruggling hopelessly ensnare victims, "it is clear that some describe as" flypaper "or" adhesive "traps" active ".
Both the Portuguese dewy pine (Drosophyllum) and the Australian rainbow plant (Byblis) use passive "flypaper" or "adhesive" traps. Consisting of leaves, "not in a position faster movement and growth," they only adhesive gland on top of hair and glue sticky mucus, or to capture and digestPrey.
Active traps:
There are three types of active cases - "Snap", "trap door" or "bladder / suction" and "flypaper" or "glue" - the movement or any movement need to catch prey. Carnivorous Plants use active case of Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) waterwheel (Aldrovanda vesiculosa), water hose (Utricularia), sundew (Drosera) and fat (Pinguicula) are.
§ SnapTraps:
The first type of active case of the "snap"-is the case, the classic representation of the group. The Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and aquatic waterwheel (Aldrovanda vesiculosa) are the classic works of this group. They use "hinge leaves," consisting of two middle lobe, the fold closed along its midrib, when prey "bristle-like [stiff] solves hair in the middle of [their] top by a rapid loss of turgor (pressure) within theepidermal cells of leaf on the top of the sheet [due to the rapid promotion of ion] ... (As long as an adequate supply of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is present. "Once closed, the" fringe of stiff hairs on the edge of the leaf blade to be locked ... catching the prey. Then, when it fights, the lobes solid to hermetically sealed a stomach, where digestive enzymes break form from glandular secretion proteins grow .... "This is particularly importantfor Venus Flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), as the earth where it grows is too sour for "nitrifying bacteria and thus nitrogen (N) [15].
§ Trapdoor or bladder / suction traps:
The next type of active trap is the "trap door" or "bladder / suction" trap the water hose (Utrichularia) used a submerged aquatic plants. It is "one of nature's most precise and delicate traps, and certainly the fastest," Grabclosed in only 1/60th of a second. Consisting of hundreds of tiny "pear shape" bubbles (in a size of 2 to 4 millimeters), which dipped to "feathery branches (modified leaves) of tiny stalks, the water hose (Utrichularia) together with Aldrovanda, other aquatic carnivorous plant trap rotifers (aquatic organisms - rotifers), Daphnia (water fleas) and mosquito larvae that swim unaware by an open input] 16. [
Each tinyBladder / suction trap consists of an "inward-opening door, hanging from the top of the opening. Support tissue and mucus (adhesive gelatinous plant substance) coating around the door frame to help the door seal [as a closed grabbed] and prevent the ingress of water. The door opening is several bristly hairs [while] numerous tiny glands in the bladder absorb most of the internal water and expel it from the outside "to create a" vacuum surrounded "inside the bubble. At the same time, "the airtight door is hinged easy access ... Special trigger hairs near the lower free edge let the door because to open it. In a tiny aquatic organism touches or hits one of these extremely sensitive hairs, the hairs like a lever has multiplied the force of impact and bending or distorting the very pliable door. This breaks the watertight seal under pressure ... "then by the presence of a subsidized," "sucksunsuspecting prey into the trap. Then, the prey can not force the "trap door" open to escape. [17]
§ Flypaper or Adhesive Traps:
The final type of active trap is the "flypaper" or "adhesive" trap, which is passive in some species. When an insect lands on the shiny surface of the mucous glands of a sundew (Drosera), it reacts rapidly with thigmotropic (a turn and turn) measures, which causes the blade to form a"Shallow pit digestion." [18]
A second system using an active "flypaper" or "adhesive" trap is the fat (Pinguicula), based on sticky tenacious mucus layers on moth capture, flies, gnats and other small flying insects that ultimately will be "digested short and inconspicuous "[19] glands.
Hermaphrotropism:
Carnivorous plants are usually "hermaphrotrophic" because they shareautotrophic (photosynthesis they convert water, sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO2) and simple minerals into energy and strength) and heterotrophic (parasitic - the harvesting of a living host for nutrients and provides no benefit in return or saprophytic - "in the course of food from dead or decaying organic matter, "[20] Thus, it is" organic molecules "that were" prepared by other organisms "[21]) properties.
Whilecarnivorous activities are not critical for the vast majority of these plants that can survive on photosynthesis alone are heterotrophic activities useful because it has nutrients, provide for their higher respiration (expenditure of energy for "non-photosynthetic structures [such as] glands, hair , glue and digestive enzymes "[22]). Based on laboratory studies, carnivorous plants, which had been grown without the" insect "food had been found good.However, if insects (sources of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sometimes potassium (K)) were added to their diet, they showed a faster growth and produced large quantities of seeds.
The pygmy sundew (Drosera burmannii) and Genlisea species of the water hose family are exceptions. The former can not get nitrate from the soil by the absence of nitrate reductase and other enzymes important for the absorption of them), while the latter (found in 'nutrient-poor white sand and wetRocks in South America and tropical Africa ") [23] is rootless and lacking chlorophyll. Accordingly, both nutrients exclusively from the capture of prey (insects in the case of the pygmy sundew (Drosera burmannii)) and protozoa (in the case of Genlisea water hose types ).
Basically when it comes to carnivorous plants and fungi, the lower the amount of nutrients in the soil and the higher the ratio of sunlight and rain, the greater its dependence on Carnivorie.Accordingly, most carnivorous plants grow where sunlight and water are abundant and nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates low.
Some carnivorous plants, especially members of the Sarracenia species, tuberous sundew, water hoses and Butterworth, even temporarily abandon Carnivorie if the conditions are not optimal. If increase soil nutrients and sunlight to reduce levels of fat and cabbage grow many Sarracenia species "flat, (phyllodes) are not carnivorous leaves," theefficient with photosyntheis (localized rounded buttons during) periods of drought and water hoses in Turions (fleshy shoots) in winter instead of expending energy to produce, while tuberous sundew added to tubers "inefficient, damaged traps." [24]
Carnivorous mushrooms:
In addition to carnivorous plants, carnivorous saprophytic fungi kill and trap prey, there are. There are currently over 200 known species of carnivorous fungi -Zygomycetes, basidiomycetes and hyphomycetes. Carnivorous fungi use two kinds of traps - "active", consisting of constricting rings (filamentous loops) and "passive" together by glue, adhesive notes.
Fungi are among the Zygomycota strain (Zygomycetes) consist of "a mass of intricately branched filaments (mycelium)" attack dead flies and small creatures. Examples are the Dactylaria species that capture and kill nematodes(Nematodes) and Dactylella tylopaga the festival to "microscopic amoeba in the ground." [25]
While some of these fungi collected passively through the use of hundreds of "adhesive" sticky notes prey species Dactylaria uses an active method. If a tiny nematode (eelworm) slips into a filamentous loop and attempts to streamline the fungus for food, the loop by a sudden chemical reaction like a lasso thrown nibble, trapping it. Later, when thefight nematodes (eelworm) dies, the fungus enters the body to absorb and digest.
Movement mechanisms in carnivorous plants and fungi:
Carnivorous plants use with active traps usually one of three types of motion mechanisms: changes in the size of the cells by "acid growth" (eg, Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) unleashed, in which the repeated touching of one or more hair a "sour" initiated reaction "causing the outer surface of theTrap [now] is larger than the inside wall "until he" snaps (confirmed show by experiments that repeated stimulation "Trap fatigue" or a delayed closure causes)), cell growth movement (such as sundew (Drosera), the tentacles "kink towards prey because the cells on one side [of the tentacle] ... outgrow the cells on the other ") and chemical reactions (eg Dactylaria in which chemical reactions trigger filamentous loops snare theirYield) [26].
Digestion:
Most carnivorous plants and fungi produce their own enzymes, proteins found in their prey to dissolve. Commonly produced enzymes acid phosphatase, amylase, esterase and protease.
But some, such as the common pitcher plant (Sarracenia purpurea) and the fanged pitcher plant (Nepenthes bicalcarta), to name two, trust in a symbiotic (both organisms benefit versus parasitism in which one organism benefits at the expense ofHost) relationship with bacteria that digest dead, rotting prey and offers "broken" molecules for nutrition. At the same time put sundew (Drosera) to a symbiotic relationship with arthropods (predatory bugs in particular) that produce ingest dead prey to nutrient-rich faeces.
Conclusion:
Carnivorous plants and fungi "fascinating [and] fascinating" because of its unique nature, the best joke belonging to animals that includesAnimal and protozoan kingdoms. Although first studied in depth by Charles Darwin in 1875 and despite the lack of fossil evidence, it is known that carnivorous plants and fungi in its own way "regardless of many plant [or fungus] lines developed": "pitfall traps independently in ( convergent evolution) in four groups of plants (the eudicot orders Caryophyllales, Oxalidales, Ericales, and the monocot family Bromeliaceae) ... and sticky traps in at least three [plantGroups] (the Caryophyllales, Ericales and Lamiales). [At the same time snap traps and lobster-pot traps] only once developed carnivorous plants. (Eg Ibicella lutea have not been studied since 1916, leaving it open whether they are carnivorous really) Many, if still poorly investigated with more research needed.
Last, these plants and fungi are not immune to destruction. They face threats from parasites (eg aphids and mealybugs), infection of gray mold (Botrytiscinerea), and "habitat destruction and over-collection." [27] If conservation methods are adopted to include forest conservation, meat-eating species are probably extinct some tragic to deprive the world of wonder and intrigue.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
[1] Barry Rice. The carnivorous plant FAQ. April 2002. 21. June 2006.http://www.sarracenia.com/faq/faq1040.html
[2] carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com and carnivorous plant / insect-eating plants. Botanical Society of America
[3] Barry Rice. The carnivorous plant FAQ. April 2002. 21. June 2006. http://www.sarracenia.com/faq/faq1160.html
[4] WP Armstrong. Carnivorous plants.
[5] carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com.
[6] William Cullina. Wildflowers: A Guide to Growing and Propagating NativeFlowers of North America. (Houghton Mifflin, Boston 2000) 182
[7] William Cullina. Wildflowers: A Guide to Growing and Propagating native flowers of North America. (Houghton Mifflin, Boston 2000) 182
[8] carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com.
[9] Edward G. Atkins, Ph.D. The plight of the Tropical Rainforest: Vanishing Eden. Barron's. October 1991. 171.
[10] Edward G. Atkins, Ph.D. The plight of the Tropical Rain Forest:Vanishing Eden. Barron's. October 1991. 171.
[11] Edward G. Atkins, Ph.D. The plight of the Tropical Rainforest: Vanishing Eden. Barron's. October 1991. 171.
[12] Nepenthes ants. Wikipedia.com
[13] carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com.
[14] Carnivorous Plants / Insectivorous plants. Botanical Society of America.
[15] WP Armstrong. Carnivorous plants.
[16] WP Armstrong. CarnivorousPlants.
[17] WP Armstrong. Carnivorous plants.
[18] carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com.
[19] carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com.
[20] saprophyte. Dictonary.com.
[21] Barry Rice. The carnivorous plant FAQ. April 2002. 21. June 2006. http://www.sarracenia.com/faq/faq1100.html
[22] carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com.
[23] WP Armstrong. Carnivorous plants.
[24] carnivorous plant.Wikipedia.com.
[25] WP Armstrong. Carnivorous plants.
[26] Barry Rice. The carnivorous plant FAQ. April 2002. 21. June 2006. http://www.sarracenia.com/faq/faq1320.html
[27] Carnivorous Plants / Insectivorous plants. Botanical Society of America.
Sources:
Barry Rice. The carnivorous plant FAQ. April 2002. 21. June 2006. http://www.sarracenia.com/faq.html
Carnivorous plant. Wikipedia.com. 2006th 21. June 2006.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivorous_plant
Carnivorous Plants / Insectivorous plants. Botanical Society of America. 21. June 2006. http://www.botany.org/carnivorous_plants
Edward G. Atkins, Ph.D. The plight of the Tropical Rainforest: Vanishing Eden. Barron's. October 1991
Nepenthes ants. Wikipedia.com. 2006th 21. June 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepenthes_bicalcarata
Saprophyte. Dictionary.com. Lexico Publishing Group, LLC. 2006th 21. June2006th http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=saprophytic
WP Armstrong. Carnivorous plants. 21. June 2006. [Http: / / waynesworld.palomar.edu / carnivor.htm]
William Cullina. Wildflowers: A Guide to Growing and Propagating native flowers of North America. (Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 2000).
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